Byzantine Influnce in Russia

As Byzantine religious culture spread around the region, it eventually looked to influence the Slavic people to the north. The conversion of the people of what is Russia today is considered to be one of the most important expansions of Orthodox Christianity.

In the ninth century CE, Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine missionaries, developed a Slavic alphabet that could be used to translate the Bible in order to help bring Christianity to the people of the area. Kievan Rus, named after the well known city of Kiev, was a state that began to flourish from trade along the Dnieper River. The state of Rus was compiled of a wide array of people, of which Prince Vladimir of Kiev ruled. As Rus began to experience interaction with other areas of the Byzantine Empire, Vladimir sought to adopt a religion that would unite the people of his region. We have learned from ancient works that Vladimir essentially ‘shopped around’ for religions. He rejected Islam because it prohibited drinking alcohol, an activity very dear to the people of Rus, he rejected Roman Christianity because he did not like the idea that the pope saw himself as supreme to other rulers, and he rejected Judaism because he saw their god as weak. In the end, Prince Vladimir was left with the Orthodox church of Byzantine, although, much political consideration was taken into account as well. After all, Vladimir married the Byzantine Emperor’s sister.
Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Christianity in 988 CE. The Orthodox religion brought stability to the diverse and budding society. Rus inherited many aspects of the neighboring Byzantine Empire such as its architectural ways, Cyrillic alphabet, and use of icons. Orthodox Christianity embedded itself deep within the Russian people and their way of life, with the state also adopting the Byzantine ideal of having control over the Church.

When the Byzantine Empire collapsed in 1453, the Russians declared Moscow to be the “third Rome,” the true protector of Orthodox Christianity, much like how Constantinople was declared a “new Rome.” The Russians felt they had inherited the Byzantine Empire in all of its glory and sophisticated ways. In this sense, the Russian conversion to Christianity played a huge role in ensuring that aspects of the Byzantine Empire lived on, similar to how the Byzantines carried on Roman traditions. As the legacy of such huge empires lives on in various ways, I wonder what could be considered to be a “fourth Rome” and how the seemingly historic tradition of continuing the ways of fallen empires has continued since Byzantium.

Sources:
http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/byzmuslm.html
Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

The Persecution and Martyrdom of Early Christians

“What was their crime? It was admitting to being Christian. They did not have proper trials.
They were tortured before being put to death.”

During the rise of Christianity, these early Christians suffered greatly. They faced persecutions by the Roman Empire and some of those the persecuted are now considered martyrs. These men and women, even children, would not renounce their faith in God; therefore, they were tortured and sentenced to death by the state. If these people had renounced their faith while on trial on worshipped the idols, they would not have died so horrifically. However, their faith, the new Christian faith, was so strong that they determined it was better to die than live a lie.

In class we read an excerpt from Life of Constantine, written by the emperor’s historian Eusebius. Eusebius had also written an Ecclesiastical History, in this book he wrote about many of the early Christian martyrs. He described their sickening sentences. A website details twenty-two of the martyrs’ deaths that Eusebius described, stating that elderly, adults, and youth all faced these horrific persecutions. They state that they were “cast to wild animals,” “thrown into the sea,” “scourged and scraped by iron hooks,” dragged behind horses or camels through the streets, raped, beheaded, burned, put in the stocks, stoned, crucified, and so many more. The most horrific I read was the account of Sanctus, which is the following:

“He suffered many torments devised by men. When these men could do no more, they fastened hot plates of brass to the most tender parts of his body. He withstood all the suffering, but his body was one continued wound, mangled and shrivelled [sic], that had entirely lost the form of man to the external eye. Again, he passed through the tortures. These included the strokes of the scourge, the draggings [sic] and lacerations from the beasts other tortures demanded by the audience, and the iron chair upon which his body was roasted. Other tortures followed until he died.”

These martyrs of the Christian faith endured the unimaginable to people today. Throughout the tortured these men and women did not renounce their faith or worship the other gods so that they may live another day. In fact some “kept a cheerful and joyful countenance throughout.” At the end of this essay, the author states that men and women today “take granted the religion freedom which they have.” No matter a person’s faith, he or she must remember that the world did not always have the religious freedoms as she does today. He or she must not ignore the fact that men and women die on a daily basis because of their religious beliefs. It may not happen as regularity as the persecutions of the Roman Christians, but there are those still discriminated against because of their religious (or non-religious) beliefs.

Information from http://www.innvista.com/culture/religion/earlmart.htm
Picture (Martyrdom of the 10,000) from Creative Commons : http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Martyrdom.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martyrdom.jpg&usg=__9Or610FcYA84uecodbDfNeh8lt0=&h=1061&w=850&sz=115&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=_mz7cDW09NLFaM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmartyrdom%26as_rights%3D(cc_publicdomain%257Ccc_attribute%257Ccc_sharealike%257Ccc_nonderived).-(cc_noncommercial)%26hl%3Den

The Byzantine Economy

In class we talked a lot about the characteristics of the Byzantine Empire but not about the significance of its material wealth. I am interested in how the trade of the Byzantine Empire affected the relations between East and West Europe. An article I found on the JSTOR database discusses this along with the general economy of the Byzantine Empire.

The economy of Eastern Byzantium differed from that of the Western Byzantine Empire. The Eastern Byzantine Empire's economy, trade, and the sacking of Constantinople by the Western Crusaders in the 4th Crusade (for more information click here and here), affected how it interacted with the Western Byzantine Empire. It soon developed an international economic system.

The Eastern Byzantine Empire had a strong monetary system and trade as part of its economy. I found a picture online of a bezant, one of its coins. It lasted around 800 years as a central form of currency in the Roman Empire, one of the longest-lasting currencies. This coin was from around 690 CE and was one of the first to show a picture of Christ. Our Strayer textbook states that other goods traveled throughout and beyond the Byzantine Empire, including textiles, dyes, jewelry, gold, silver, and silk. Cities became major centers for these goods to be traded for the currency.

After the siege of Constantinople (as shown in the picture on the right) and its recapture by the Eastern Roman Empire, the article's author (Laiou-Thomakis from above) states that the relationship between the two halves of the Empire changed. It surprised me to learn that the Eastern Byzantium became increasingly reliant on the Western economy after 1204. After the siege, more individuals from the West settled in the East. Eastern nobles began marrying Western noblewomen, who brought their cultural ideas and taste for Western goods with them. In addition, Italian goods in the East Mediterranean became important to the East.

Finally, the article points out that the Byzantine economy formed in a world of international markets. This means that supply and demand controlled the market, kept prices fairly stable, led to a common currency, started a bank system, and labor supported it. The system was so strong that merchants could easily find out the price of a good and that would tell them the market's current condition (reminds one of today's stock system indexes). Even in politically difficult times, the market for most goods remained fairly stable, which was an indication of a strong economy that did not fluctuate with every little problem.

This article supplies very interesting information. It showed how the East Byzantine Empire's trade, economy, and siege of Constantinople affected its relation with the West. It also came to have an international economic system. This reminds one, in this time when many individuals are so concerned about the economy, that historical events influence the economy. One may even argue that the Byzantine Empire led the way to a stronger economical system used around the world today.

Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

"Sailing To Byzantium"

"Sailing To Byzantium" by: William Butler Yeats


That is no country for old men. The young
In one another's arms, birds in the trees
- Those dying generations - at their song,
The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,
Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long
Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.
Caught in that sensual music all neglect
Monuments of unageing intellect.

An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing
For every tatter in its mortal dress,
Nor is there singing school but studying
Monuments of its own magnificence;
And therefore I have sailed the seas and come
To the holy city of Byzantium.

O sages standing in God's holy fire
As in the gold mosaic of a wall,
Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,
And be the singing-masters of my soul.
Consume my heart away; sick with desire
And fastened to a dying animal
It knows not what it is; and gather me
Into the artifice of eternity.

Once out of nature I shall never take
My bodily form from any natural thing,
But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make
Of hammered gold and gold enamelling
To keep a drowsy Emperor awake;
Or set upon a golden bough to sing
To lords and ladies of Byzantium
Of what is past, or passing, or to come.

In "Sailing to Byzantium" the poem is broken up into four stanzas, each describing a different part of the voyage and the feeling associate with it. Stanza one is the narrators departure to Byzantium. In stanza two the voyage done by boat and landing in Byzantium. In the third stanza, in the holy city of Byzantium and visiting the ancient landmarks.During the fourth stanza, the desire of the narrator to become a part of physical aspect of Byzantium.Ancient Byzantium was a city in Rome and was known as heaven, due to the vast works of art. Art was one of the most significant elements of the city and since Yeats believes art is essential to life and death, he uses Byzantium as the prime example of paradise in his poem.

So what? You ask, Yeats was able to take a complex and meaningful subject, break it into four parts in order for those who read it to understand the history being created during this time.

Soucre: http://www.online-literature.com/yeats/781/

Early Christian Architecture: Hagia Sophia

When Constantine adopted Christianity in 313 CE, no one could have foretold the effects this small and relatively unknown religion would have on world events. One influential aspect of early Christianity was the architecture it inspired in the Byzantine Empire that would later influence Medieval and Renaissance architecture in Western Europe. Architecture in Byzantium, adapted from old styles of the Romans and Greeks, was an expression of the new Christian beliefs and aimed to house congregations, to provide monumental spaces to hold sacred rites and display relics, and to express mystery and a connection to the divine. Much of this Byzantine architecture can be found in the city of Istanbul (not Constantinople?).

Shortly after Constantine accepted Christianity, he provided financial support to build churches in Rome and in the Holy Land. A type of Roman public building known as a Basilica, an elongated hall with rows of columns, provided the starting point for these early churches. Constantine’s architects developed innovative technological and design elements and added vertical dimensions with domes and vaults that were not adopted until much later in Western Europe. The most notable of Constantine’s churches were the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at the site of Jesus’ tomb and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. Over the next two centuries, architects modified and perfected these designs which are best exemplified by Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

The Byzantine emperor, Justinian I, commissioned Hagia Sophia to replace an earlier church after it burned down. His goal was to revitalize the capital at Constantinople and to glorify his reign. The architects, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidoros of Miletos, built Hagia Sophia between 532 and 537 CE, and its design reflects the culmination of Hellenistic architecture. The central basilica consists of semi-domes and vaults with a central dome that rests on four arches. The dome has a diameter of about 101 feet and a height of over 160 feet. Unfortunately, the original central dome had to be rebuilt when it collapsed after an earthquake in 558. Colorful mosaics of Christian figures such as the Virgin Mary and Jesus adorn the interior of Hagia Sophia.

Nothing remains static in history, and the fall of the Constantinople to Mehmet II (leader of the ottoman empire) in 1453 changed Hagia Sophia from a Christian church to an Islamic mosque. In the process of conversion, many of the mosaics were covered with plaster, but would later be uncovered through restoration work by the Fossati brothers in 1847. In the coming centuries successive Muslim sultans would add minerets, a kitchen, a library, and architectural support to the building. In 1934 the government of Turkey converted Hagia Sophia to a museum and restored the original mosaics. In 1985, UNESCO dedicated Hagia Sophia as well as the city of Istanbul as a world heritage site.

Sources:
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haso/hd_haso.htm

MacDonald, William L. Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture. New York: George Braziller, 1962. Print.

Relics of Ancient Rome

I am writing my critical book review about ancient Rome, so this week I decided to look into any recent archaeological finds linked to the empire. I was pleasantly surprised to find that there have been a number of important artifacts and cities unearthed.
The discovery I found most interesting is being referred to as the ‘Tomb of the Gladiator,' which is pictured above from the BBC website. The tomb was found in October of last year along the Via Flamina roadway in Italy, which runs northeast from Rome to the coast. Construction was underway when workers came across ancient marble columns. The tomb is that of general Marcus Nonius Macrinus, who served Emperor Marcus Aurelius when he reigned from 161CE-180CE. Marcus Macrinus is thought to be the inspiration for Russell Crowe’s character in the film Gladiator. However, the real Marcus Macrinus was not sold into slavery and therefore did not return to seek vengeance on Rome. Instead, Macrinus was Emperor Aurelius’s favorite general and helped him attain many great victories.

Much of the tomb is still hidden in thick mud from the nearby Tiber River, but it is the same mud that has kept the ancient artifacts so well preserved. A video of some great pictures of artifacts at the dig can be found here. Numerous inscriptions and decorations have been discovered at the tomb site, some of which have led to new information about Marcus Nonius Macrinus’ life. Archaeologists have yet to discover the sarcophagus, but a set of ten inscriptions were found on pieces of the tomb that provide knowledge such as where the general was from, and what roles he played in the empire at one time or another. Macrinus was from Brescia in northern Italy and served as a police commissioner, a magistrate, and most notably, a close confidant to the Emperor who wanted the general to fight against invading Germanic tribes.

Interestingly enough, a year earlier in August of 2008, a massive statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius was found on an archaeological site in Turkey in the ancient city of Sagalassos. Fabulous pictures of the sculpture can be found here. Pieces of the statue are being found in rooms of the city’s Roman baths, which archaeologists have been working to excavate for nearly twelve years. The largest room, the frigidarium, was a cold pool for the Romans to soak in after a bath, and it is thought to have hosted a gallery of statues and sculptures. The statue of Aurelius would have stood an enormous fifteen feet tall with a three foot high head. Researchers found a five foot long arm with a hand that is holding what is left of a globe. They also uncovered a set of massive legs, intact from the knee down, where the feet are decorated in what would have been considered army boots.

Each of these ancient finds serve a great purpose in helping researchers to piece together the past. The stories of both great men are now a little more complete, and there is no telling what more can be learned. If archaeologists find Marcus Nonius Macrinus’s sarcophagus, it would be a monumental find that could give people of today an even better look into the lives of ancient people. New artifacts are being discovered all the time which vividly remind us of the great empires and ancient people that we still have so much to learn about.

Sources:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7675633.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7580745.stm
http://www.sagalassos.be/saga/en/albums/marcus_aurelius

Joan of Arc vs. The Messenger

“Once upon a time known as the Dark Ages - there lived a legend whose coming had been foretold by the great prophet Merlin. – It was said that after nearly a century of war this young maiden would unite her divided people – and lead them to freedom. – It did not say how…” Joan of Arc introduction

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There are many stories told about the famous Joan of Arc, but who was she really? Did she really hear voices of saints? The truth is, no one knows but God himself. Throughout the years, there have been many adaptations of her story created, two of which are Joan of Arc starring Leelee Sobieski and The Messenger starring Milla Jovovich. For my blog this week, I have decided to compare these two movies. Therefore, this week I spent approximately 5 hours watching these movies and taking over 17 pages of notes. When I first began this, I expected there to be many more similarities between the two films, but I was extremely mistaken.

The Messenger was rated R, and for good reason. The movie had very graphic battle violence, rape and continual foul language. Whereas Joan of Arc, though it is not rated in the US, it was shown on public television and friendly for the entire family. There are a few similarities between the two films, but many more differences. Both films used the concrete historical facts for the basis behind the story, but with their own personal variations. These facts include Joan’s age, the battles/places, the plot for her death, and much of the trial itself. However, there were many historical differences as well.

One of the first differences I noticed was the name, not the title of the movie, but the character’s name. In Joan of Arc, it is ‘Joan’ with our English pronunciation, but in The Messenger, her name is Jeanne. The latter is most likely more accurate since she was French. This name difference was not the only differences between characters either; many of the characters came into the movies in different places and had either different names of pronunciations. One of the most important, in my opinion, is at the beginning of her story. For Joan the raid on her village and death of her blind friend in that raid is the catalyst to her mission. Jeanne’s catalyst is also during this raid by the “Black Knights;” however, rather than it being a friend killed, the catalyst is Jeanne’s witness to the murder and rape of her older sister’s corpse. One major point here, Joan does not have any sisters, only brothers, but Jeanne does, so the question is, which is true?

Now, for anyone that does not know the story of Joan of Arc, she claimed she was given signs from God through the voices of saints. Her mission was to ensure the crowning of King Charles (at the time Dauphine) and unite France. Joan claimed to hear the voices of the three saints, St. Catherine, Margaret, and Michael, but Jeanne never names those who speak to her. In fact, she only claims to her the voice through one man/boy. In the end, this man, played by Dustin Hoffman, is portrayed almost as Satan, though some call him her conscience. This would mean that Jeanne did the work of Satan and not the work of God, an interpretation by the writer’s of this film.

Hoffman's character made Jeanne doubt her action while on trial; he made her question her motives and actions. For example, "God asked you to do something? ... You mean, God said, I need you Jeanne?" "No, but he sent me signs."..."You didn't see what was Jeanne, you saw what you wanted to see.", and "In His name?" "Yes, in His name. We fought and killed in His name - the King of Heaven!" "Really? 'Let all who love me follow me!'" At this point Jeanne began doubting, thus Hoffman's character made her unable to concentrate during her trials and ultimately lead her to her execution. In Jeanne's desire to be confessed, though never granted by the biship, she 'confesses' to Hoffman's character, "I have committed sins my lord, so many sins. I saw so many signs...The ones I wanted to see. I fought out of revenge and despair. I was all the things that people believe they're allowed to be when they're fighting for a cause...I was proud and stubborn [Hoffman whispers 'selfish']...selfish ['cruel']...yes, cruel." Unlike Jeanne, however, Joan never doubts her voices and signs from God. As a matter of fact, while burning at the stake she looks up to heaven and whispers, "Thank you, thank you."

One final, crucial, difference is that Joan denies being the Maid of Lorraine but Jeanne embraces/claims it. The Maid of Lorraine was the myth that a virgin from Lorraine would save all of France. Joan did not want to be this woman, though she may well have been. However, from the beginning of Jeanne’s quest, she calls herself the Maid, “There is a girl…claiming to be the Maid of Lorraine, she will be here tomorrow.” Yet, both Joan and Jeanne go through tests to prove that they really are doing the work of God and that they are truly virgin. However, unknown to them, this was just a political ploy to uphold the ‘ratings’ of the common people, “It matters what the simple people think.”

In doing this, I am not claiming that one or the other is more accurate. My objective here was to prove that many people interpret history differently. There is no possible way to determine whether Joan/Jeanne really heard voices from God, and there is no way to know the true story behind her life. Though Joan of Arc and The Messenger have different methods of telling the story, they both tell the story of a brave girl who was executed by burning at the stake at only 19 years old. “Joan of Arc was burnt on May 30^th 1431, she was nineteen years old. She was canonized by the Vatican five hundred years later.”

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Disclaimer: All quotes taken directly from the movies. Picture found through Creative Commons search.

Here's some Youtube videos:
Joan of Arc: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HjX9BS98Aqc [trailer]

The Messenger: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mgpt0v37j4s [trailer-amazing] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xcM8ilpHsfQ [surrender scene]