The Almighty Alhambra

After watching the film about the Islamic world in class, I was interested to learn more about The Alhambra in Southern Spain. Located in Granada, the Alhambra Palace, pictured below, rests among the rocky hills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and it is one of the most complete Islamic palaces intact in the world today.


Construction of the Alhambra began during the beginning of the Nasrid Dynasty. It was founded by a man known as Muḥammad ibn al-Aḥmar in 1232 CE and marks the last of Islamic rule in Spain. The era experienced a series of attempts from the Christians to reconquer the land, which caused the Alhambra to be first and foremost, a fortress. The massive establishment is divided into militaristic and administrative quarters with many lookout posts and a large wall surrounding its entirety. Separate areas were designated for elite members of the dynasty. These royal quarters are surrounded by luxurious gardens that are said to have been inspired by an image of paradise. In contrast to the plain wall that encloses the palace, nearly every inch within Alhambra is decorated with elaborately carved patterns. In accordance with Islamic ways, the palace bears no carvings of people.

Over the years, the Alhambra experienced numerous additions of royal quarters. The Torre de las Infantas, Tower of the Princesses, is believed to have been one of the last additions to the palace under Nasrid rule. The tower is thought to be where Muḥammad ibn al-Aḥmar’s daughter lived, and although a majority of the palace is open to the public today, her tower is not. Another aspect of the Alhambra I found interesting is the Hall of the Two Sisters. It is not named after people, but rather after two massive white marble slabs laid in the floor. Although, the most magnificent aspect of the Hall of the Two Sisters is its honeycombed ceiling which is pictured at right. The ceiling is compiled of five thousand honeycomb cells, and it is thought to be the most intricate work of its kind from the Islamic world.

When the Christians took over Granada in 1492, they burned nearly eighty thousand books, destroying the written legacy of Islamic presence in the region. However, they could not rid of the impact Islam had on Europe, nor would they probably choose to do so. The Muslim people brought mathematics, philosophy, poetry, advanced architecture, and intricate irrigation and sewage systems to the region. In fact, such contributions to Europe during the Dark Ages helped revive the region. While the Muslims were willing to share their knowledge and wisdom with Europe, most of the area is still hesitant today to recognize that it is Islamic culture at the base of much of their history. It is unfortunate that most of the world has forgotten the significance of the history of the Islamic people, and the events that unfold in our modern world are only pushing such important history further into the background.

Sources: http://www.articlesbase.com/travel-articles/dome-sweet-dome-the-alhambra-palace-in-granada-spain-426585.html http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=891 http://www.bbc.co.uk/asiannetwork/desidna/prog01alhambra.shtml http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/223838.stm

The Kaaba

“The most important shrine established for the people is the one in Becca; a blessed beacon for all the people. In it are clear signs: the station of Abraham. Anyone who enters it shall be granted safe passage. The people owe it to GOD that they shall observe Hajj to this shrine, when they can afford it. As for those who disbelieve, GOD does not need anyone.” [Quran 3:96-97] (2)

The Kaaba is the most holy place in the Islam religion. During their prayers (salat), five times a day, every day, followers face Mecca and the Kaaba. Many believe that the Kaaba has been rebuilt between five to twelve times. Believers of Islam say that the original Kaaba was built by the Prophet Abraham, “as a landmark for the House of God, for the sole purpose of worshipping of [sic] God alone.” (1) They also believe that the Prophets Ismail (Ishmael, son of Abraham) and Muhammed were a few of the rebuilders of the Kaaba.

Currently the Kaaba is a total of 627 square feet, the interior is 13 x 9, the walls are one meter wide, the ceiling/roof are made out of wood (teak with stainless steel), and the walls are made of stone. However, the stone on the outside is polished whereas the stone inside is not. Each time the Kaaba was reconstructed there were modifications made. When the Syrian army destroyed the Kaaba in 683 CE, Hajj Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr rebuilt the Kaaba on the foundations of Ibrahim (Abraham). His modifications included a small window near the roof for light, the moving of the door to ground level, the addition of a second door for exiting, adding 9 cubits to the height of the Kaaba itself, and reducing the interior pillars down from six to three. However, in 693 CE Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf al-Thaqaf “demolished what Ibn az-Zubayr had added to it from the older foundation of Prophet Ibrahim, restored its old structure as the Quraish had it.” (1)He also removed the Hateem, walled up the second door, and reduced the height of the Kaaba by five cubits.

The most important, in my opinion, is when Abbasi Khalifa Harun al Rasheed desired to also rebuild the Kaaba, but Imam Malik “asked the Khalifa to change his mind because constant demolition and rebuilding is not respectful and would become a toy in the hands of kings. Each would want to demolish and rebuild the Kaaba.” (1) Therefore, Abbasi Khalifa Harun al Rasheed did not rebuild the Kaaba, and until 1996 it was only repaired a number of times. In 1996 the Kaaba was once again rebuilt. After this reconstruction, only the stones are original, everything else has been replaced.

This picture represents the Prophet Muhammed solving the argument of the Black Stone. The Black stone is believed to be a remnant of a meteorite; however, to the Islam religion it is the Hajar el Aswad, the sacred black stone. When they decided that this stone would be placed in (on the outer, southeast, wall), there were arguments over who would put the stone in its place. The Prophet Muhammed had the solution “that all agreed to putting the Black Stone on a cloak, the elders of each of the clans held on to one edge of the clak and carried the stone to its place. The Prophet then picked up the stone and placed it on the wall of the Kaba [sic].” (1) The only problem with this stone is that some Islamic followers have begun to show this stone reverence, almost like a false idol.

The Kaaba is a place of reverence and worship for the followers of the Islamic faith. The only problem I see with the Kaaba is that people have begun to worship the Kaaba itself. As with some who worship the cross in the Christian faith. For all those that follow a monotheistic faith, there must be an awareness of false idols, and a way to guard oneself from these idols.

“The small, cubed building known as the Kaba may not rival skyscrapers in height or mansions in width, but its impact on history and human being is unmatched. The Kaba is the building towards which Muslims face five times a day, everyday, in prayer. This has been the case since the time of Prophet Muhammad over 1400 years ago.” (1)

Works Cited: (1) http://www.bible.ca/islam/islam-kaba- history.htm, (2) http://www.submission.org/hajj/kaaba.html,

Other cites of interest: http://www.dartabligh.org/months/zilhaj/historyofkaaba/index.html, - http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Kaaba.html,

Picture Found through Creative Commons Search: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg

Important Events in Islam 545-632

It did not take just one event to lead to the importance on Islam and the success of Muhammed.

In 570 Muhammad was born in Mecca

During 590 - 604 Pope Gregory the Great begins his liturgical reforms and changes in church administration.

594-615 Muhammed began to become known and began to live his life fully. Muhammad became the manager of the business of Lady Khadija. He married his wife Hadrat Khadija. In the year of 610, Muhammed had a religious experience on Mount Hira that changed his life. he then invited the Hashimites to adopt Islam.

In 615 the persecution of Muslims by the Quaraish in Mecca intensified and a group of Muslims leave for Abyssinia.

In 621 Abu Jahl became leader of a mounting opposition to Muslims in Mecca and organized a boycott of merchants in Mohammad's clan, the Hashim.

In 622 About 75 converts from Medina took the two Pledges of al-Aqaba, professing to Islam and to protect Muhammad from all danger.

During 622 Muhammad and his small band of followers migrate to the town of Yathrib in the north. The leaders of that town invited him to come and lead them and were willing to adopt Islam. The Hijrah of 622, the migration, marked the beginning of the Muslim era and the Islamic calendar.

In 624 Buddhism became the established religion of Japan. Also during this time Muhammad broke with his Jewish supporters because they refused to recognize him as a prophet and adopt Islam. He chose now to emphasize the Arabness of the new religion and has his followers face Mecca when praying instead of Jerusalem.

In the end, all the Jews were either banished or executed.
March 15, 624 At the Battle of Abdr, Muhammad and his followers defeated an army from Mecca.Where Muhammad's chief rival in Mecca, Abu Jahl, was executed.

In 627 Meccan leader Abu Sufyanlaid siege to Muhammad's forces in Medina during the battle of the Trench. Even with 10,000 men he was unsuccessful for the 15 days he was there.

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Muhammad led about 1,600 men on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 628, where their passage was blocked by citizens of Mecca. Fortunately they agreed to negotiate with Muhammad and then later agreed to the Pact of Hudaibiya, ending hostilities and allowing for Muslim pilgrimages.

After which a group of Muslims were attacked, Muhammad dissolved the Pact of Hudaibiya and prepared to attack Mecca in 629.

An army of 30,000 Muslims marched on Mecca which surrendered with little resistance. Muhammad took control of the city and made it the spiritual center of Islam in 630.

Muhammad died in 632, His father-in-law, Abu-Bakr, and Umar devised a system to allow Islam to sustain religious and political stability. Accepting the name of caliph, Abu-Bakr begins a military exhibition to enforce the caliph's authority over Arabian followers of Muhammad.

All of this took place leaving Abu-Bakr, Who soon after Muhammed died moved northward, defeating Byzantine and Persian forces. Abu-Bakr died two years later and Umar succeeded him as the second caliph, launching a new campaign against the neighboring empires.


Sources:
http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/timeline.htm
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/teach/muslims/timeline.html
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/timeline/Islam

The Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, which has Mohammad's tomb inside.

In class this week, we learned about the Islamic religion and culture. The city of Medina, "city of the Prophet", interested me and I did some research to find out more about the city and what life was like in the ummah, or Muslim community. I stumbled upon some interesting information about The Prophet's Mosque as well. Medina and the Prophet's Mosque became central to the Muslim faith in uniting the community.

First, I will give a brief history of Medina and the Islamic community, or ummah. The city was originally dominated by Jews and called Yathrib. It was later renamed Medina soon after people of the city asked Muhammad to delegate and keep the peace between two opposing communities, called the Aws and Khazraj. In 622, Muhammad, his prophets, and believers, moved from Mecca to Medina, establishing it as a holy city. A website I found, globalsecurity.org, emphasizes the importance of Medina to Muslim beliefs when it states:

Considered to be the second most important holy city of Islam [after Mecca], the city of Medina is located in a well-watered oasis 110 miles (180 km) inland (east) of the Red Sea. Much fruit and some grain are raised in and around the city. When making the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, usually a visit to Medina is part of the trip.

The first ummah within Medina possessed some interesting characteristics that became the foundation for other Islamic communities. It surprised me to learn that instead of basing social status on wealth or family heritage, the ummah based social status on how pious and obedient one remained to the Islamic religion. Muhammad united his Muslim tribe because he gave them a strong force to follow. He kept one-fifth of money and goods from raids and gave the rest to members of the community. People in the community then distributed a part of their money to help the poor. This system established social order and organization that had previously been lacking in the different, feuding tribes.

Globalsecurity.org also states that the Prophet's Mosque (see picture above) is the second most holy Mosque for Muslims, millions of whom visit it still today. It is the resting place of Mohammad, his daughter, and the Caliph Omar. This large amount of visitors to the Mosque then and now illustrates that it unites believers in the Islamic faith. The Mosque became a center for economic and social activity in the community and, in this way, allowed cultural diversity and greater acceptance of others. Muhammad built this as the first building after his move from Mecca to Medina. The Mosque was important to the faith, as is revealed when one examines the amount of area added to it over the years. It is now one hundred times the size it was when Muhammad first had it built. Half a million people can easily fit inside.

It is clear that Medina and the Prophet's Mosque united the ummah, or community, of the Muslim world and still does today. For more information of the Islamic religion and culture in general another website I found has links to many other useful sources. In addition, this year I had to read Three Cups of Tea by Greg Mortenson who is coming to visit our university this spring. David Oliver Relin wrote this book about Mortenson’s work building schools for children in Pakistan and Afghanistan. I would definitely recommend this book. It provides an interesting outlook into the Muslim community today and addresses some of the stereotypes we have against the Islamic religion.

Arabian Nights: Harun al-Rashid

One of my favorite Disney movies, after Robin Hood and The Jungle Book, is Aladdin. The story is filled with the romance, mystery, and action that I loved as a child and is why I still enjoy the movie today. Stories such as Aladdin, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, and Sinbad’s Voyages are folktales in the book One Thousand and One Arabian Nights. Europeans compiled and translated these stories in the 18th century, but the earliest known written versions date back to the 14th century. Even though the stories in One Thousand and One Nights had their origins in the Golden Age of the Islamic Empire, there is no definitive text or author. This collection of stories was hugely popular influential in later European literature, and, even today, the adventure and mysticism from One Thousand and One Nights inspires films and plays. Many of these tales are based on actual people and events, but they are greatly exaggerated. Immortalized within the stories of One Thousand and One Nights is the caliph, Harun al-Rashid. His adventures disguised as a commoner, where he wanders the city streets with his closest companions as they discover the issues the common people face, solve murders, and help people in distress are told in stories such as The Tale of the Three Apples. Like characters in many stories, the real Harun al-Rashid was not nearly as noble or as successful as his fictional self.

Harun al-Rashid was born to the prince Mahdi in Iran and to a slave mother, Khayzuran in approximately 762 CE. He would eventually come to be caliph of the Abbasid Islamic Empire that stretched from modern day Tunisia through Egypt to Syria and Central Asia. The Abbasid dynasty overthrew the Umayyad dynasty in 750. Many Muslims considered the Umayyads tyrannical and impious, whereas the Abbasids ruled more in keeping with the Koran. During the reign of Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad grew into a prosperous city. The people attributed the relative safety and security they felt within the Islamic Empire to his rule, but overall, Harun al-Rashid did little to improve or advance the Islamic Empire. Harun’s son and successor, Ma’mun was the one who established the House of Wisdom and greatly expanded scholarship within the empire. Harun was not a great political ruler, he struggled militarily, and he faced internal conflicts. His popularity today comes, not from his achievements, but from his role in One Thousand and One Nights.

Harun was second in line to ascend to the role of caliph after his brother Hadi. Following their father’s death, Hadi took power, which was fine with Harun but not with their mother, Khayzuran, who favored the younger son. When Hadi forcefully recommended that his mother remain in the women’s quarters and stick to domestic affairs, she became angry. He died under mysterious circumstances shortly thereafter. Harun was then able to gain power but he left the business of ruling to his close friends in a powerful Persian family, the Barmakids. His closest friend from this family was Ja’far who appears in many of the tales alongside Harun. From all accounts, Harun al-Rashid was closely tied to this family, until, for no apparent reason, either to the people of the time or future historians, Harun had the entire Barmakid family murdered.

Harun had frequent contact with his contemporary, Charlemagne, and the two seemed to be allied against the Byzantine Empire. Harun supported annual raids and skirmishes against the Byzantines along the border between the Islamic and Byzantine empires. He died of natural causes in 809 CE when he was in his mid-forties, but he will forever remain a character in the stories of the Arabian Nights.

Sources:
Kennedy, Hugh. "The True Caliph of the Arabian Nights." History Today 54.9 (2004): 31-36. Academic One File. Web. 15 Nov. 2009. <>.

Saunders, J.J. "Harun al-Rashid and His Times." History Today 13.1 (1963): 52-62. Periodicals Archive Online. Web. 15 Nov. 2009. .

Byzantine Influnce in Russia

As Byzantine religious culture spread around the region, it eventually looked to influence the Slavic people to the north. The conversion of the people of what is Russia today is considered to be one of the most important expansions of Orthodox Christianity.

In the ninth century CE, Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine missionaries, developed a Slavic alphabet that could be used to translate the Bible in order to help bring Christianity to the people of the area. Kievan Rus, named after the well known city of Kiev, was a state that began to flourish from trade along the Dnieper River. The state of Rus was compiled of a wide array of people, of which Prince Vladimir of Kiev ruled. As Rus began to experience interaction with other areas of the Byzantine Empire, Vladimir sought to adopt a religion that would unite the people of his region. We have learned from ancient works that Vladimir essentially ‘shopped around’ for religions. He rejected Islam because it prohibited drinking alcohol, an activity very dear to the people of Rus, he rejected Roman Christianity because he did not like the idea that the pope saw himself as supreme to other rulers, and he rejected Judaism because he saw their god as weak. In the end, Prince Vladimir was left with the Orthodox church of Byzantine, although, much political consideration was taken into account as well. After all, Vladimir married the Byzantine Emperor’s sister.
Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Christianity in 988 CE. The Orthodox religion brought stability to the diverse and budding society. Rus inherited many aspects of the neighboring Byzantine Empire such as its architectural ways, Cyrillic alphabet, and use of icons. Orthodox Christianity embedded itself deep within the Russian people and their way of life, with the state also adopting the Byzantine ideal of having control over the Church.

When the Byzantine Empire collapsed in 1453, the Russians declared Moscow to be the “third Rome,” the true protector of Orthodox Christianity, much like how Constantinople was declared a “new Rome.” The Russians felt they had inherited the Byzantine Empire in all of its glory and sophisticated ways. In this sense, the Russian conversion to Christianity played a huge role in ensuring that aspects of the Byzantine Empire lived on, similar to how the Byzantines carried on Roman traditions. As the legacy of such huge empires lives on in various ways, I wonder what could be considered to be a “fourth Rome” and how the seemingly historic tradition of continuing the ways of fallen empires has continued since Byzantium.

Sources:
http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/byzmuslm.html
Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

The Persecution and Martyrdom of Early Christians

“What was their crime? It was admitting to being Christian. They did not have proper trials.
They were tortured before being put to death.”

During the rise of Christianity, these early Christians suffered greatly. They faced persecutions by the Roman Empire and some of those the persecuted are now considered martyrs. These men and women, even children, would not renounce their faith in God; therefore, they were tortured and sentenced to death by the state. If these people had renounced their faith while on trial on worshipped the idols, they would not have died so horrifically. However, their faith, the new Christian faith, was so strong that they determined it was better to die than live a lie.

In class we read an excerpt from Life of Constantine, written by the emperor’s historian Eusebius. Eusebius had also written an Ecclesiastical History, in this book he wrote about many of the early Christian martyrs. He described their sickening sentences. A website details twenty-two of the martyrs’ deaths that Eusebius described, stating that elderly, adults, and youth all faced these horrific persecutions. They state that they were “cast to wild animals,” “thrown into the sea,” “scourged and scraped by iron hooks,” dragged behind horses or camels through the streets, raped, beheaded, burned, put in the stocks, stoned, crucified, and so many more. The most horrific I read was the account of Sanctus, which is the following:

“He suffered many torments devised by men. When these men could do no more, they fastened hot plates of brass to the most tender parts of his body. He withstood all the suffering, but his body was one continued wound, mangled and shrivelled [sic], that had entirely lost the form of man to the external eye. Again, he passed through the tortures. These included the strokes of the scourge, the draggings [sic] and lacerations from the beasts other tortures demanded by the audience, and the iron chair upon which his body was roasted. Other tortures followed until he died.”

These martyrs of the Christian faith endured the unimaginable to people today. Throughout the tortured these men and women did not renounce their faith or worship the other gods so that they may live another day. In fact some “kept a cheerful and joyful countenance throughout.” At the end of this essay, the author states that men and women today “take granted the religion freedom which they have.” No matter a person’s faith, he or she must remember that the world did not always have the religious freedoms as she does today. He or she must not ignore the fact that men and women die on a daily basis because of their religious beliefs. It may not happen as regularity as the persecutions of the Roman Christians, but there are those still discriminated against because of their religious (or non-religious) beliefs.

Information from http://www.innvista.com/culture/religion/earlmart.htm
Picture (Martyrdom of the 10,000) from Creative Commons : http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Martyrdom.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martyrdom.jpg&usg=__9Or610FcYA84uecodbDfNeh8lt0=&h=1061&w=850&sz=115&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=_mz7cDW09NLFaM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmartyrdom%26as_rights%3D(cc_publicdomain%257Ccc_attribute%257Ccc_sharealike%257Ccc_nonderived).-(cc_noncommercial)%26hl%3Den

The Byzantine Economy

In class we talked a lot about the characteristics of the Byzantine Empire but not about the significance of its material wealth. I am interested in how the trade of the Byzantine Empire affected the relations between East and West Europe. An article I found on the JSTOR database discusses this along with the general economy of the Byzantine Empire.

The economy of Eastern Byzantium differed from that of the Western Byzantine Empire. The Eastern Byzantine Empire's economy, trade, and the sacking of Constantinople by the Western Crusaders in the 4th Crusade (for more information click here and here), affected how it interacted with the Western Byzantine Empire. It soon developed an international economic system.

The Eastern Byzantine Empire had a strong monetary system and trade as part of its economy. I found a picture online of a bezant, one of its coins. It lasted around 800 years as a central form of currency in the Roman Empire, one of the longest-lasting currencies. This coin was from around 690 CE and was one of the first to show a picture of Christ. Our Strayer textbook states that other goods traveled throughout and beyond the Byzantine Empire, including textiles, dyes, jewelry, gold, silver, and silk. Cities became major centers for these goods to be traded for the currency.

After the siege of Constantinople (as shown in the picture on the right) and its recapture by the Eastern Roman Empire, the article's author (Laiou-Thomakis from above) states that the relationship between the two halves of the Empire changed. It surprised me to learn that the Eastern Byzantium became increasingly reliant on the Western economy after 1204. After the siege, more individuals from the West settled in the East. Eastern nobles began marrying Western noblewomen, who brought their cultural ideas and taste for Western goods with them. In addition, Italian goods in the East Mediterranean became important to the East.

Finally, the article points out that the Byzantine economy formed in a world of international markets. This means that supply and demand controlled the market, kept prices fairly stable, led to a common currency, started a bank system, and labor supported it. The system was so strong that merchants could easily find out the price of a good and that would tell them the market's current condition (reminds one of today's stock system indexes). Even in politically difficult times, the market for most goods remained fairly stable, which was an indication of a strong economy that did not fluctuate with every little problem.

This article supplies very interesting information. It showed how the East Byzantine Empire's trade, economy, and siege of Constantinople affected its relation with the West. It also came to have an international economic system. This reminds one, in this time when many individuals are so concerned about the economy, that historical events influence the economy. One may even argue that the Byzantine Empire led the way to a stronger economical system used around the world today.

Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

"Sailing To Byzantium"

"Sailing To Byzantium" by: William Butler Yeats


That is no country for old men. The young
In one another's arms, birds in the trees
- Those dying generations - at their song,
The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,
Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long
Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.
Caught in that sensual music all neglect
Monuments of unageing intellect.

An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing
For every tatter in its mortal dress,
Nor is there singing school but studying
Monuments of its own magnificence;
And therefore I have sailed the seas and come
To the holy city of Byzantium.

O sages standing in God's holy fire
As in the gold mosaic of a wall,
Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,
And be the singing-masters of my soul.
Consume my heart away; sick with desire
And fastened to a dying animal
It knows not what it is; and gather me
Into the artifice of eternity.

Once out of nature I shall never take
My bodily form from any natural thing,
But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make
Of hammered gold and gold enamelling
To keep a drowsy Emperor awake;
Or set upon a golden bough to sing
To lords and ladies of Byzantium
Of what is past, or passing, or to come.

In "Sailing to Byzantium" the poem is broken up into four stanzas, each describing a different part of the voyage and the feeling associate with it. Stanza one is the narrators departure to Byzantium. In stanza two the voyage done by boat and landing in Byzantium. In the third stanza, in the holy city of Byzantium and visiting the ancient landmarks.During the fourth stanza, the desire of the narrator to become a part of physical aspect of Byzantium.Ancient Byzantium was a city in Rome and was known as heaven, due to the vast works of art. Art was one of the most significant elements of the city and since Yeats believes art is essential to life and death, he uses Byzantium as the prime example of paradise in his poem.

So what? You ask, Yeats was able to take a complex and meaningful subject, break it into four parts in order for those who read it to understand the history being created during this time.

Soucre: http://www.online-literature.com/yeats/781/

Early Christian Architecture: Hagia Sophia

When Constantine adopted Christianity in 313 CE, no one could have foretold the effects this small and relatively unknown religion would have on world events. One influential aspect of early Christianity was the architecture it inspired in the Byzantine Empire that would later influence Medieval and Renaissance architecture in Western Europe. Architecture in Byzantium, adapted from old styles of the Romans and Greeks, was an expression of the new Christian beliefs and aimed to house congregations, to provide monumental spaces to hold sacred rites and display relics, and to express mystery and a connection to the divine. Much of this Byzantine architecture can be found in the city of Istanbul (not Constantinople?).

Shortly after Constantine accepted Christianity, he provided financial support to build churches in Rome and in the Holy Land. A type of Roman public building known as a Basilica, an elongated hall with rows of columns, provided the starting point for these early churches. Constantine’s architects developed innovative technological and design elements and added vertical dimensions with domes and vaults that were not adopted until much later in Western Europe. The most notable of Constantine’s churches were the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at the site of Jesus’ tomb and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. Over the next two centuries, architects modified and perfected these designs which are best exemplified by Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

The Byzantine emperor, Justinian I, commissioned Hagia Sophia to replace an earlier church after it burned down. His goal was to revitalize the capital at Constantinople and to glorify his reign. The architects, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidoros of Miletos, built Hagia Sophia between 532 and 537 CE, and its design reflects the culmination of Hellenistic architecture. The central basilica consists of semi-domes and vaults with a central dome that rests on four arches. The dome has a diameter of about 101 feet and a height of over 160 feet. Unfortunately, the original central dome had to be rebuilt when it collapsed after an earthquake in 558. Colorful mosaics of Christian figures such as the Virgin Mary and Jesus adorn the interior of Hagia Sophia.

Nothing remains static in history, and the fall of the Constantinople to Mehmet II (leader of the ottoman empire) in 1453 changed Hagia Sophia from a Christian church to an Islamic mosque. In the process of conversion, many of the mosaics were covered with plaster, but would later be uncovered through restoration work by the Fossati brothers in 1847. In the coming centuries successive Muslim sultans would add minerets, a kitchen, a library, and architectural support to the building. In 1934 the government of Turkey converted Hagia Sophia to a museum and restored the original mosaics. In 1985, UNESCO dedicated Hagia Sophia as well as the city of Istanbul as a world heritage site.

Sources:
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haso/hd_haso.htm

MacDonald, William L. Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture. New York: George Braziller, 1962. Print.

Relics of Ancient Rome

I am writing my critical book review about ancient Rome, so this week I decided to look into any recent archaeological finds linked to the empire. I was pleasantly surprised to find that there have been a number of important artifacts and cities unearthed.
The discovery I found most interesting is being referred to as the ‘Tomb of the Gladiator,' which is pictured above from the BBC website. The tomb was found in October of last year along the Via Flamina roadway in Italy, which runs northeast from Rome to the coast. Construction was underway when workers came across ancient marble columns. The tomb is that of general Marcus Nonius Macrinus, who served Emperor Marcus Aurelius when he reigned from 161CE-180CE. Marcus Macrinus is thought to be the inspiration for Russell Crowe’s character in the film Gladiator. However, the real Marcus Macrinus was not sold into slavery and therefore did not return to seek vengeance on Rome. Instead, Macrinus was Emperor Aurelius’s favorite general and helped him attain many great victories.

Much of the tomb is still hidden in thick mud from the nearby Tiber River, but it is the same mud that has kept the ancient artifacts so well preserved. A video of some great pictures of artifacts at the dig can be found here. Numerous inscriptions and decorations have been discovered at the tomb site, some of which have led to new information about Marcus Nonius Macrinus’ life. Archaeologists have yet to discover the sarcophagus, but a set of ten inscriptions were found on pieces of the tomb that provide knowledge such as where the general was from, and what roles he played in the empire at one time or another. Macrinus was from Brescia in northern Italy and served as a police commissioner, a magistrate, and most notably, a close confidant to the Emperor who wanted the general to fight against invading Germanic tribes.

Interestingly enough, a year earlier in August of 2008, a massive statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius was found on an archaeological site in Turkey in the ancient city of Sagalassos. Fabulous pictures of the sculpture can be found here. Pieces of the statue are being found in rooms of the city’s Roman baths, which archaeologists have been working to excavate for nearly twelve years. The largest room, the frigidarium, was a cold pool for the Romans to soak in after a bath, and it is thought to have hosted a gallery of statues and sculptures. The statue of Aurelius would have stood an enormous fifteen feet tall with a three foot high head. Researchers found a five foot long arm with a hand that is holding what is left of a globe. They also uncovered a set of massive legs, intact from the knee down, where the feet are decorated in what would have been considered army boots.

Each of these ancient finds serve a great purpose in helping researchers to piece together the past. The stories of both great men are now a little more complete, and there is no telling what more can be learned. If archaeologists find Marcus Nonius Macrinus’s sarcophagus, it would be a monumental find that could give people of today an even better look into the lives of ancient people. New artifacts are being discovered all the time which vividly remind us of the great empires and ancient people that we still have so much to learn about.

Sources:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7675633.stm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7580745.stm
http://www.sagalassos.be/saga/en/albums/marcus_aurelius

Joan of Arc vs. The Messenger

“Once upon a time known as the Dark Ages - there lived a legend whose coming had been foretold by the great prophet Merlin. – It was said that after nearly a century of war this young maiden would unite her divided people – and lead them to freedom. – It did not say how…” Joan of Arc introduction

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There are many stories told about the famous Joan of Arc, but who was she really? Did she really hear voices of saints? The truth is, no one knows but God himself. Throughout the years, there have been many adaptations of her story created, two of which are Joan of Arc starring Leelee Sobieski and The Messenger starring Milla Jovovich. For my blog this week, I have decided to compare these two movies. Therefore, this week I spent approximately 5 hours watching these movies and taking over 17 pages of notes. When I first began this, I expected there to be many more similarities between the two films, but I was extremely mistaken.

The Messenger was rated R, and for good reason. The movie had very graphic battle violence, rape and continual foul language. Whereas Joan of Arc, though it is not rated in the US, it was shown on public television and friendly for the entire family. There are a few similarities between the two films, but many more differences. Both films used the concrete historical facts for the basis behind the story, but with their own personal variations. These facts include Joan’s age, the battles/places, the plot for her death, and much of the trial itself. However, there were many historical differences as well.

One of the first differences I noticed was the name, not the title of the movie, but the character’s name. In Joan of Arc, it is ‘Joan’ with our English pronunciation, but in The Messenger, her name is Jeanne. The latter is most likely more accurate since she was French. This name difference was not the only differences between characters either; many of the characters came into the movies in different places and had either different names of pronunciations. One of the most important, in my opinion, is at the beginning of her story. For Joan the raid on her village and death of her blind friend in that raid is the catalyst to her mission. Jeanne’s catalyst is also during this raid by the “Black Knights;” however, rather than it being a friend killed, the catalyst is Jeanne’s witness to the murder and rape of her older sister’s corpse. One major point here, Joan does not have any sisters, only brothers, but Jeanne does, so the question is, which is true?

Now, for anyone that does not know the story of Joan of Arc, she claimed she was given signs from God through the voices of saints. Her mission was to ensure the crowning of King Charles (at the time Dauphine) and unite France. Joan claimed to hear the voices of the three saints, St. Catherine, Margaret, and Michael, but Jeanne never names those who speak to her. In fact, she only claims to her the voice through one man/boy. In the end, this man, played by Dustin Hoffman, is portrayed almost as Satan, though some call him her conscience. This would mean that Jeanne did the work of Satan and not the work of God, an interpretation by the writer’s of this film.

Hoffman's character made Jeanne doubt her action while on trial; he made her question her motives and actions. For example, "God asked you to do something? ... You mean, God said, I need you Jeanne?" "No, but he sent me signs."..."You didn't see what was Jeanne, you saw what you wanted to see.", and "In His name?" "Yes, in His name. We fought and killed in His name - the King of Heaven!" "Really? 'Let all who love me follow me!'" At this point Jeanne began doubting, thus Hoffman's character made her unable to concentrate during her trials and ultimately lead her to her execution. In Jeanne's desire to be confessed, though never granted by the biship, she 'confesses' to Hoffman's character, "I have committed sins my lord, so many sins. I saw so many signs...The ones I wanted to see. I fought out of revenge and despair. I was all the things that people believe they're allowed to be when they're fighting for a cause...I was proud and stubborn [Hoffman whispers 'selfish']...selfish ['cruel']...yes, cruel." Unlike Jeanne, however, Joan never doubts her voices and signs from God. As a matter of fact, while burning at the stake she looks up to heaven and whispers, "Thank you, thank you."

One final, crucial, difference is that Joan denies being the Maid of Lorraine but Jeanne embraces/claims it. The Maid of Lorraine was the myth that a virgin from Lorraine would save all of France. Joan did not want to be this woman, though she may well have been. However, from the beginning of Jeanne’s quest, she calls herself the Maid, “There is a girl…claiming to be the Maid of Lorraine, she will be here tomorrow.” Yet, both Joan and Jeanne go through tests to prove that they really are doing the work of God and that they are truly virgin. However, unknown to them, this was just a political ploy to uphold the ‘ratings’ of the common people, “It matters what the simple people think.”

In doing this, I am not claiming that one or the other is more accurate. My objective here was to prove that many people interpret history differently. There is no possible way to determine whether Joan/Jeanne really heard voices from God, and there is no way to know the true story behind her life. Though Joan of Arc and The Messenger have different methods of telling the story, they both tell the story of a brave girl who was executed by burning at the stake at only 19 years old. “Joan of Arc was burnt on May 30^th 1431, she was nineteen years old. She was canonized by the Vatican five hundred years later.”

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Disclaimer: All quotes taken directly from the movies. Picture found through Creative Commons search.

Here's some Youtube videos:
Joan of Arc: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HjX9BS98Aqc [trailer]

The Messenger: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mgpt0v37j4s [trailer-amazing] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xcM8ilpHsfQ [surrender scene]

Founding of Constantinople

In 324 when Constantine defeated Licinius he decided to found a new capital for the emperor. This was a common task since many emperors had founded or re-founded cities during the third and fourth century's. He did not want to move the capital from Rome to Constantinople, he wanted Constantinople to become the new capital of the Byzantine civilization. It soon outstripped every other city in beauty and prosperity and by the fifth century its fortune had become identified with that of the empire as a whole.

City Foundation

The decision to found the city was made after Constantine fought Licinius in the area. Where he saw the strategic advantage of Byzantium.This was not his only choice, he also considered Sirmium and Troy.

He choose Constantinople for three main reasons:

1. It was ideally situated between the eastern and northern military frontiers.

2. It was to become an important center of trade, located as it was on major north-south and east-west trade routes.

3.Constantine wanted to honor his military victory in a typically imperial fashion, and felt the beauty of the city did just that.

Cartography

GPS: Make a right turn.
Dwight: Wait! Wait! Wait! No! No! No! It means bear right, up there.
Michael: No, it said right, it said take a right.
Dwight: No! No! No, look, it means go up to the right, bear right, over the bridge and hook up with 307.
Michael: Maybe it's a shortcut Dwight. It said go to the right.
[turns right]
Dwight: It can't mean that! There's a lake there!
Michael: The machine knows where it is going!
Dwight: This is the lake!
Michael: The machine knows---stop yelling at me!

This conversation between Michael and Dwight from “The Office” made me realize how important maps are to everyday life and how much mapping technology has evolved from rock drawings to 3-D topographical maps made by computers. Maps play a major role in our understanding of history, they are the oldest form of non-oral communication, and they pre-date written language. A map is a two-dimensional representation of the earth’s surface, and humans have been producing them since their early history on this planet.

Early humans were wanderers and they probably used crudely drawn maps to describe their surroundings or give directions to features. Some of the earliest archaeological evidence of maps comes from rock art such as a town plan map from Catal Huyuk or from the Babylonian clay tablets inscribed sometime during the 5th century BCE. Babylon is depicted at the center of the world, and the map shows the Euphrates River, other surrounding cities, the Persian Gulf, and it represents the earth as a flat disk surrounded by ocean. Maps from China dating back to 168 BCE were drawn on silk and describe natural features, relief, cities, and road networks to a fairly accurate scale. (Below) Early maps were rough and numerous, but there are two common themes that are found in early mapmaking. The first is that maps represented the earth as flat and only described local landscape. The second theme is that early mapmakers placed their cities or towns at the center of map.

Mapmaking evolved, and as trade expanded, so did geographers’ and early mapmakers’ awareness of the wider world around them. The Greek geographer Eratosthenes, used the geometry of a sphere to calculate the size of earth. New technologies, such as the printing press, made map production more efficient and made it possible for maps to pass between peoples. Cartographers made attempts to map the known world and revise existing older maps. Most maps made in the 12th and 13th century in Europe were based upon the work of Ptolemy, a Greek scientist, astronomer, mathematician, and geographer, who lived somewhere around 90 to 168 CE. Most of the information about Ptolemy comes from second hand sources as mapmakers in later centuries transcribed his geocentric view of the cosmos, his understanding of map projections, and his geographic descriptions including a descriptive coordinate system. Mapmakers would draw maps and attribute them to Ptolemy’s work (notice how this map is drawn in 1482 but is based on Ptolemy.) There were many contributors to mapmaking in the classical era, and they laid the foundation for future explorers. During the age of exploration in the 15th century, Europeans became aware of the North and South American landmasses and confirmed that the Greek view of Earth as a sphere was correct.

All ancient cultures, from the Mayans to the Chinese, produced maps. Mapping has evolved from making simple descriptions of local surroundings to using satellite technology and GPS units to describe an exact location anywhere on earth, but the purpose of maps has not changed. They delineate boundaries, show ownership, and facilitate navigation.

Another interesting website with a database of historical maps from the 14th century to current day is managed by the University of Texas.

Sources:
Harley, J B., and David Woodward, eds. The History of Cartography. Vol. 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Print.

Seager, Joni . Maps University of Vermont, n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2009. http://chnm.gmu.edu/worldhistorysources/unpacking/mapsmain.html

Christianity: History of the Bible and its Connection to Corinth

This week in class we are discussing Christianity and Byzantine Rome. Most individuals have heard of the Bible, but I wonder if anyone truly knows its history. I was curious as to a more detailed history of the Bible so I searched for a website. I also found information on the city of Corinth because my small group is reading 1 Corinthians this semester and I wanted to know more about the city and church. Overall, the history of the Bible, in the Old and New Testaments, and the city of Corinth directly relate and provide many interesting facts.

The Bible was written over a total of 1,600 years. Forty different authors made it into sixty-six books. I was surprised to learn that the various authors wrote the Old Testament and New Testament in two different languages. The Old Testament was in Hebrew, with the New Testament in Greek.

Judaism influenced the Bible. Christianity believes that God commanded Moses to write down the scriptures and laws. Other authors also wrote when God inspired them. By around 450 B.C.E., a council of rabbis gathered the various scrolls written over time and arranged them into the Torah (Old Testament only). By 250 B.C.E., it was translated into Greek in Alexandria. The website I cited remarks that the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (parts of all Old Testament books except Esther and the oldest version of Isaiah) show the reliability of the Jews' scripture writing because they have the same content.

The New Testament began to be written in 40 C.E. as the gospels by Mathew, Mark, Luke, John, and others. Letters and books also made up the New Testament. It was later translated into Greek (although the Greeks did not recognize many books of the New Testament as legitimate until later). Today there exist 24,000 writings from the New Testament alone.

In addition, my small group is studying 1 Corinthians, so I found information about the city of Corinth, in Greece. 1 Corinthians is in the New Testament and is made of a series of letters the apostle Paul wrote to the Church of Corinth. The website states that there were two Corinths. Ancient Corinth was very prosperous but the Roman Empire destroyed it in 146 B.C.E. because of its connection with the Achaean League. Julius Caesar re-established the city in 44 B.C.E. It prospered as well, with an eventual size five times that of Athens, as a major trading city. Corinth had many individuals of different cultures living there because it was a trading port (by the isthmus that connects Peloponnesus to the rest of Greece). Italy traded with Greece through Corinth frequently. The center of the city was filled with shrines to previous and current emperors and Greek gods (like Apollo and Epidaurus). (The picture shows the last remnants of Apollo's temple left today.) Mithranism (one of Christianity's main rivals at this time) was also prominent. These shrines and idol worship were the basis for Paul's letters to the Corinthians telling them to turn away from their evil ways and back to God. The city's prosperity eventually declined with earthquakes.

The Black Death

The intention of the new trade routes, like the Silk Road, was to create a means of transportation for goods between lands. However, not only did these new trade routes supply new products to areas, but also unknown diseases. Eurasian Empires brought diseases east, and the Chinese brought devastating diseases west. The most commonly known disease brought to Europe because of trading, is the “Black Death.”

Our textbook, Ways of the World by Robert Strayer, states that the “era of intensified interaction facilitated the spread of the Black Death – identified variously with the bubonic plague, anthrax, or a package of epidemic diseases – from China to Europe.” The plague quickly spread throughout Europe, devastating the populations of the nations. On a website, Medicine Net, they say that the 1300s Black Death “killed approximately one-third (20-30 million) of Europe’s population.”

Oriental rat fleas from infected rats were the means of transportation for the plague. However, this is not the only reason that it spread at such high rates; living conditions during the Middle Ages were not the best, just as the disposal of bodies was not the sanitary. Therefore, due to the improper disposal of the infected deceased, the plague was able to spread to the greater public. TheMedicine Net website lists the symptoms that the people would have faced as “bleeding below the skin which darkened (“blackened”) their bodies” hence the nickname the Black Death, and it was “characterized by gangrene of the fingers, toes, and nose.”

In addition, because the plague also infected the farmers, there were great food shortages for those left uninfected by the plague. There was no one to harvest the crops, so whole crops were lost. However, according to the Strayer text, “some among the living benefited. Tenant farmers and urban workers, now in short supply, could demand higher wages or better terms.” Thus, following the epidemic, people faced inflated prices for common necessities.

Although the new trade routes created cross-cultural trade of goods and religions, they also traded diseases. These were diseases that people were not prepared for, and yet the trading continued and still continues to this day.

*Fun Fact* - some believe that the nursery rhyme "Ring around the Rosie" refers to the Black Plague
"Ring around the Rosie" - red sores on the body - first signs of infection
"Pocket full of Posies" - some used herbs, flowers etc. to show others they were infected, so people could stay away
"Ashes Ashes" - the bodies of the infected were burned after death
"We all Fall down" - it was believed that the Black Death was the end of the world.
- However interesting this may sound, it is not proven, only a myth -

Works Cited - http://www.medicinenet.com/plague/article.htm, Ways of the World by Robert W. Strayer, image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/The_Plague%2C_1898.jpg/419px-The_Plague%2C_1898.jpg (found through Creative commons)

The Highways of Ancient Times

It is remarkable how many different trade routes were used to connect ancient civilizations other than the notorious silk road. Not only were mere goods traded in ancient times, but ideas and religion began to spread as a result of trade connections as well. I have found a few sites that provide great information about various trade routes, the commodities traded over such routes, and the history of religions that spread as a result of trade in ancient times.



The Ambassador Road crossed over China from the east coast to present day Burma. It started as a dirt path made by Chinese peasants in order to communicate with distant villages.

The Appian Way and the Egnation Way were sea and land routes that connected the Roman Empire and the Middle East. It is said to have been constructed to more efficiently move people and armies throughout the Roman Empire.

The Incense Road was a trade route that, as you may have guessed, was largely used for transporting incense. It connected Egypt with the Indies by taking a land route over Arabia because the Red Sea was considered very dangerous for travel due to shallow waters, uncharted rocks, and pirates.

Roman and Indian trade also occurred, not by means of a specific trade route, but by various forms of transportation. Merchants traveled from Rome to Egypt and then to India to trade precious items by means of numerous land and sea paths, depending on weather conditions and the time of year.

There are also many trade routes over bodies of water such as the Arabian Sea, Red Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the China Sea. These ancient water routes came to be known as the Maritime Sea Route. The following site about the Maritime Sea Routes is my favorite because it is incredibly informative and interactive. The site has so many links for information about what was traded over specific bodies of water that one could spend hours looking it over.

The goods traded along ancient trade routes were often metals and they varied widely along with their purpose or use. Although, raw metals were of very little use to ancient people, and they therefore had to undergo a series of transformations to make different goods and weapons. Metallurgy, annealing, and smelting, are all processes that involve working with heated metal in order to achieve a goal. A site describing how ancient people worked with metals in these ways can be found here.

Copper was one of the very first metals to be used by humans. It was originally used for decorative purposes and to embellish clothing.

Bronze was first used for decorative means as well, but it was found to be more malleable than copper and was highly valued.

Iron was more plentiful than bronze in ancient times, but it was not used until later because it has a much higher melting point. Early furnaces could not achieve a high enough temperature to allow the workers to rid the metal of all its impurities. Iron eventually lead to the use of steel, which had an enormous impact on ancient civilizations.

Salt was also widely traded in ancient times because the human body requires it. With the rise of agriculture, early humans began eating less meat and therefore were consuming less and less salt in their regular diet.

Religions such as Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism were spread largely as a result of ancient trading networks. This site provides a useful history of where each religion originated, and how they began to spread. There are also many links within the site that lead to even more detailed information.

Image from:
http://www.releasing.net/featurefilmproduction/1/heavens.htm