The Almighty Alhambra

After watching the film about the Islamic world in class, I was interested to learn more about The Alhambra in Southern Spain. Located in Granada, the Alhambra Palace, pictured below, rests among the rocky hills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and it is one of the most complete Islamic palaces intact in the world today.


Construction of the Alhambra began during the beginning of the Nasrid Dynasty. It was founded by a man known as Muḥammad ibn al-Aḥmar in 1232 CE and marks the last of Islamic rule in Spain. The era experienced a series of attempts from the Christians to reconquer the land, which caused the Alhambra to be first and foremost, a fortress. The massive establishment is divided into militaristic and administrative quarters with many lookout posts and a large wall surrounding its entirety. Separate areas were designated for elite members of the dynasty. These royal quarters are surrounded by luxurious gardens that are said to have been inspired by an image of paradise. In contrast to the plain wall that encloses the palace, nearly every inch within Alhambra is decorated with elaborately carved patterns. In accordance with Islamic ways, the palace bears no carvings of people.

Over the years, the Alhambra experienced numerous additions of royal quarters. The Torre de las Infantas, Tower of the Princesses, is believed to have been one of the last additions to the palace under Nasrid rule. The tower is thought to be where Muḥammad ibn al-Aḥmar’s daughter lived, and although a majority of the palace is open to the public today, her tower is not. Another aspect of the Alhambra I found interesting is the Hall of the Two Sisters. It is not named after people, but rather after two massive white marble slabs laid in the floor. Although, the most magnificent aspect of the Hall of the Two Sisters is its honeycombed ceiling which is pictured at right. The ceiling is compiled of five thousand honeycomb cells, and it is thought to be the most intricate work of its kind from the Islamic world.

When the Christians took over Granada in 1492, they burned nearly eighty thousand books, destroying the written legacy of Islamic presence in the region. However, they could not rid of the impact Islam had on Europe, nor would they probably choose to do so. The Muslim people brought mathematics, philosophy, poetry, advanced architecture, and intricate irrigation and sewage systems to the region. In fact, such contributions to Europe during the Dark Ages helped revive the region. While the Muslims were willing to share their knowledge and wisdom with Europe, most of the area is still hesitant today to recognize that it is Islamic culture at the base of much of their history. It is unfortunate that most of the world has forgotten the significance of the history of the Islamic people, and the events that unfold in our modern world are only pushing such important history further into the background.

Sources: http://www.articlesbase.com/travel-articles/dome-sweet-dome-the-alhambra-palace-in-granada-spain-426585.html http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=891 http://www.bbc.co.uk/asiannetwork/desidna/prog01alhambra.shtml http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/223838.stm

The Kaaba

“The most important shrine established for the people is the one in Becca; a blessed beacon for all the people. In it are clear signs: the station of Abraham. Anyone who enters it shall be granted safe passage. The people owe it to GOD that they shall observe Hajj to this shrine, when they can afford it. As for those who disbelieve, GOD does not need anyone.” [Quran 3:96-97] (2)

The Kaaba is the most holy place in the Islam religion. During their prayers (salat), five times a day, every day, followers face Mecca and the Kaaba. Many believe that the Kaaba has been rebuilt between five to twelve times. Believers of Islam say that the original Kaaba was built by the Prophet Abraham, “as a landmark for the House of God, for the sole purpose of worshipping of [sic] God alone.” (1) They also believe that the Prophets Ismail (Ishmael, son of Abraham) and Muhammed were a few of the rebuilders of the Kaaba.

Currently the Kaaba is a total of 627 square feet, the interior is 13 x 9, the walls are one meter wide, the ceiling/roof are made out of wood (teak with stainless steel), and the walls are made of stone. However, the stone on the outside is polished whereas the stone inside is not. Each time the Kaaba was reconstructed there were modifications made. When the Syrian army destroyed the Kaaba in 683 CE, Hajj Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr rebuilt the Kaaba on the foundations of Ibrahim (Abraham). His modifications included a small window near the roof for light, the moving of the door to ground level, the addition of a second door for exiting, adding 9 cubits to the height of the Kaaba itself, and reducing the interior pillars down from six to three. However, in 693 CE Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf al-Thaqaf “demolished what Ibn az-Zubayr had added to it from the older foundation of Prophet Ibrahim, restored its old structure as the Quraish had it.” (1)He also removed the Hateem, walled up the second door, and reduced the height of the Kaaba by five cubits.

The most important, in my opinion, is when Abbasi Khalifa Harun al Rasheed desired to also rebuild the Kaaba, but Imam Malik “asked the Khalifa to change his mind because constant demolition and rebuilding is not respectful and would become a toy in the hands of kings. Each would want to demolish and rebuild the Kaaba.” (1) Therefore, Abbasi Khalifa Harun al Rasheed did not rebuild the Kaaba, and until 1996 it was only repaired a number of times. In 1996 the Kaaba was once again rebuilt. After this reconstruction, only the stones are original, everything else has been replaced.

This picture represents the Prophet Muhammed solving the argument of the Black Stone. The Black stone is believed to be a remnant of a meteorite; however, to the Islam religion it is the Hajar el Aswad, the sacred black stone. When they decided that this stone would be placed in (on the outer, southeast, wall), there were arguments over who would put the stone in its place. The Prophet Muhammed had the solution “that all agreed to putting the Black Stone on a cloak, the elders of each of the clans held on to one edge of the clak and carried the stone to its place. The Prophet then picked up the stone and placed it on the wall of the Kaba [sic].” (1) The only problem with this stone is that some Islamic followers have begun to show this stone reverence, almost like a false idol.

The Kaaba is a place of reverence and worship for the followers of the Islamic faith. The only problem I see with the Kaaba is that people have begun to worship the Kaaba itself. As with some who worship the cross in the Christian faith. For all those that follow a monotheistic faith, there must be an awareness of false idols, and a way to guard oneself from these idols.

“The small, cubed building known as the Kaba may not rival skyscrapers in height or mansions in width, but its impact on history and human being is unmatched. The Kaba is the building towards which Muslims face five times a day, everyday, in prayer. This has been the case since the time of Prophet Muhammad over 1400 years ago.” (1)

Works Cited: (1) http://www.bible.ca/islam/islam-kaba- history.htm, (2) http://www.submission.org/hajj/kaaba.html,

Other cites of interest: http://www.dartabligh.org/months/zilhaj/historyofkaaba/index.html, - http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Kaaba.html,

Picture Found through Creative Commons Search: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg

Important Events in Islam 545-632

It did not take just one event to lead to the importance on Islam and the success of Muhammed.

In 570 Muhammad was born in Mecca

During 590 - 604 Pope Gregory the Great begins his liturgical reforms and changes in church administration.

594-615 Muhammed began to become known and began to live his life fully. Muhammad became the manager of the business of Lady Khadija. He married his wife Hadrat Khadija. In the year of 610, Muhammed had a religious experience on Mount Hira that changed his life. he then invited the Hashimites to adopt Islam.

In 615 the persecution of Muslims by the Quaraish in Mecca intensified and a group of Muslims leave for Abyssinia.

In 621 Abu Jahl became leader of a mounting opposition to Muslims in Mecca and organized a boycott of merchants in Mohammad's clan, the Hashim.

In 622 About 75 converts from Medina took the two Pledges of al-Aqaba, professing to Islam and to protect Muhammad from all danger.

During 622 Muhammad and his small band of followers migrate to the town of Yathrib in the north. The leaders of that town invited him to come and lead them and were willing to adopt Islam. The Hijrah of 622, the migration, marked the beginning of the Muslim era and the Islamic calendar.

In 624 Buddhism became the established religion of Japan. Also during this time Muhammad broke with his Jewish supporters because they refused to recognize him as a prophet and adopt Islam. He chose now to emphasize the Arabness of the new religion and has his followers face Mecca when praying instead of Jerusalem.

In the end, all the Jews were either banished or executed.
March 15, 624 At the Battle of Abdr, Muhammad and his followers defeated an army from Mecca.Where Muhammad's chief rival in Mecca, Abu Jahl, was executed.

In 627 Meccan leader Abu Sufyanlaid siege to Muhammad's forces in Medina during the battle of the Trench. Even with 10,000 men he was unsuccessful for the 15 days he was there.

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Muhammad led about 1,600 men on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 628, where their passage was blocked by citizens of Mecca. Fortunately they agreed to negotiate with Muhammad and then later agreed to the Pact of Hudaibiya, ending hostilities and allowing for Muslim pilgrimages.

After which a group of Muslims were attacked, Muhammad dissolved the Pact of Hudaibiya and prepared to attack Mecca in 629.

An army of 30,000 Muslims marched on Mecca which surrendered with little resistance. Muhammad took control of the city and made it the spiritual center of Islam in 630.

Muhammad died in 632, His father-in-law, Abu-Bakr, and Umar devised a system to allow Islam to sustain religious and political stability. Accepting the name of caliph, Abu-Bakr begins a military exhibition to enforce the caliph's authority over Arabian followers of Muhammad.

All of this took place leaving Abu-Bakr, Who soon after Muhammed died moved northward, defeating Byzantine and Persian forces. Abu-Bakr died two years later and Umar succeeded him as the second caliph, launching a new campaign against the neighboring empires.


Sources:
http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/timeline.htm
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/teach/muslims/timeline.html
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/timeline/Islam

The Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, which has Mohammad's tomb inside.

In class this week, we learned about the Islamic religion and culture. The city of Medina, "city of the Prophet", interested me and I did some research to find out more about the city and what life was like in the ummah, or Muslim community. I stumbled upon some interesting information about The Prophet's Mosque as well. Medina and the Prophet's Mosque became central to the Muslim faith in uniting the community.

First, I will give a brief history of Medina and the Islamic community, or ummah. The city was originally dominated by Jews and called Yathrib. It was later renamed Medina soon after people of the city asked Muhammad to delegate and keep the peace between two opposing communities, called the Aws and Khazraj. In 622, Muhammad, his prophets, and believers, moved from Mecca to Medina, establishing it as a holy city. A website I found, globalsecurity.org, emphasizes the importance of Medina to Muslim beliefs when it states:

Considered to be the second most important holy city of Islam [after Mecca], the city of Medina is located in a well-watered oasis 110 miles (180 km) inland (east) of the Red Sea. Much fruit and some grain are raised in and around the city. When making the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, usually a visit to Medina is part of the trip.

The first ummah within Medina possessed some interesting characteristics that became the foundation for other Islamic communities. It surprised me to learn that instead of basing social status on wealth or family heritage, the ummah based social status on how pious and obedient one remained to the Islamic religion. Muhammad united his Muslim tribe because he gave them a strong force to follow. He kept one-fifth of money and goods from raids and gave the rest to members of the community. People in the community then distributed a part of their money to help the poor. This system established social order and organization that had previously been lacking in the different, feuding tribes.

Globalsecurity.org also states that the Prophet's Mosque (see picture above) is the second most holy Mosque for Muslims, millions of whom visit it still today. It is the resting place of Mohammad, his daughter, and the Caliph Omar. This large amount of visitors to the Mosque then and now illustrates that it unites believers in the Islamic faith. The Mosque became a center for economic and social activity in the community and, in this way, allowed cultural diversity and greater acceptance of others. Muhammad built this as the first building after his move from Mecca to Medina. The Mosque was important to the faith, as is revealed when one examines the amount of area added to it over the years. It is now one hundred times the size it was when Muhammad first had it built. Half a million people can easily fit inside.

It is clear that Medina and the Prophet's Mosque united the ummah, or community, of the Muslim world and still does today. For more information of the Islamic religion and culture in general another website I found has links to many other useful sources. In addition, this year I had to read Three Cups of Tea by Greg Mortenson who is coming to visit our university this spring. David Oliver Relin wrote this book about Mortenson’s work building schools for children in Pakistan and Afghanistan. I would definitely recommend this book. It provides an interesting outlook into the Muslim community today and addresses some of the stereotypes we have against the Islamic religion.

Arabian Nights: Harun al-Rashid

One of my favorite Disney movies, after Robin Hood and The Jungle Book, is Aladdin. The story is filled with the romance, mystery, and action that I loved as a child and is why I still enjoy the movie today. Stories such as Aladdin, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, and Sinbad’s Voyages are folktales in the book One Thousand and One Arabian Nights. Europeans compiled and translated these stories in the 18th century, but the earliest known written versions date back to the 14th century. Even though the stories in One Thousand and One Nights had their origins in the Golden Age of the Islamic Empire, there is no definitive text or author. This collection of stories was hugely popular influential in later European literature, and, even today, the adventure and mysticism from One Thousand and One Nights inspires films and plays. Many of these tales are based on actual people and events, but they are greatly exaggerated. Immortalized within the stories of One Thousand and One Nights is the caliph, Harun al-Rashid. His adventures disguised as a commoner, where he wanders the city streets with his closest companions as they discover the issues the common people face, solve murders, and help people in distress are told in stories such as The Tale of the Three Apples. Like characters in many stories, the real Harun al-Rashid was not nearly as noble or as successful as his fictional self.

Harun al-Rashid was born to the prince Mahdi in Iran and to a slave mother, Khayzuran in approximately 762 CE. He would eventually come to be caliph of the Abbasid Islamic Empire that stretched from modern day Tunisia through Egypt to Syria and Central Asia. The Abbasid dynasty overthrew the Umayyad dynasty in 750. Many Muslims considered the Umayyads tyrannical and impious, whereas the Abbasids ruled more in keeping with the Koran. During the reign of Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad grew into a prosperous city. The people attributed the relative safety and security they felt within the Islamic Empire to his rule, but overall, Harun al-Rashid did little to improve or advance the Islamic Empire. Harun’s son and successor, Ma’mun was the one who established the House of Wisdom and greatly expanded scholarship within the empire. Harun was not a great political ruler, he struggled militarily, and he faced internal conflicts. His popularity today comes, not from his achievements, but from his role in One Thousand and One Nights.

Harun was second in line to ascend to the role of caliph after his brother Hadi. Following their father’s death, Hadi took power, which was fine with Harun but not with their mother, Khayzuran, who favored the younger son. When Hadi forcefully recommended that his mother remain in the women’s quarters and stick to domestic affairs, she became angry. He died under mysterious circumstances shortly thereafter. Harun was then able to gain power but he left the business of ruling to his close friends in a powerful Persian family, the Barmakids. His closest friend from this family was Ja’far who appears in many of the tales alongside Harun. From all accounts, Harun al-Rashid was closely tied to this family, until, for no apparent reason, either to the people of the time or future historians, Harun had the entire Barmakid family murdered.

Harun had frequent contact with his contemporary, Charlemagne, and the two seemed to be allied against the Byzantine Empire. Harun supported annual raids and skirmishes against the Byzantines along the border between the Islamic and Byzantine empires. He died of natural causes in 809 CE when he was in his mid-forties, but he will forever remain a character in the stories of the Arabian Nights.

Sources:
Kennedy, Hugh. "The True Caliph of the Arabian Nights." History Today 54.9 (2004): 31-36. Academic One File. Web. 15 Nov. 2009. <>.

Saunders, J.J. "Harun al-Rashid and His Times." History Today 13.1 (1963): 52-62. Periodicals Archive Online. Web. 15 Nov. 2009. .

Byzantine Influnce in Russia

As Byzantine religious culture spread around the region, it eventually looked to influence the Slavic people to the north. The conversion of the people of what is Russia today is considered to be one of the most important expansions of Orthodox Christianity.

In the ninth century CE, Cyril and Methodius, two Byzantine missionaries, developed a Slavic alphabet that could be used to translate the Bible in order to help bring Christianity to the people of the area. Kievan Rus, named after the well known city of Kiev, was a state that began to flourish from trade along the Dnieper River. The state of Rus was compiled of a wide array of people, of which Prince Vladimir of Kiev ruled. As Rus began to experience interaction with other areas of the Byzantine Empire, Vladimir sought to adopt a religion that would unite the people of his region. We have learned from ancient works that Vladimir essentially ‘shopped around’ for religions. He rejected Islam because it prohibited drinking alcohol, an activity very dear to the people of Rus, he rejected Roman Christianity because he did not like the idea that the pope saw himself as supreme to other rulers, and he rejected Judaism because he saw their god as weak. In the end, Prince Vladimir was left with the Orthodox church of Byzantine, although, much political consideration was taken into account as well. After all, Vladimir married the Byzantine Emperor’s sister.
Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Christianity in 988 CE. The Orthodox religion brought stability to the diverse and budding society. Rus inherited many aspects of the neighboring Byzantine Empire such as its architectural ways, Cyrillic alphabet, and use of icons. Orthodox Christianity embedded itself deep within the Russian people and their way of life, with the state also adopting the Byzantine ideal of having control over the Church.

When the Byzantine Empire collapsed in 1453, the Russians declared Moscow to be the “third Rome,” the true protector of Orthodox Christianity, much like how Constantinople was declared a “new Rome.” The Russians felt they had inherited the Byzantine Empire in all of its glory and sophisticated ways. In this sense, the Russian conversion to Christianity played a huge role in ensuring that aspects of the Byzantine Empire lived on, similar to how the Byzantines carried on Roman traditions. As the legacy of such huge empires lives on in various ways, I wonder what could be considered to be a “fourth Rome” and how the seemingly historic tradition of continuing the ways of fallen empires has continued since Byzantium.

Sources:
http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/byzmuslm.html
Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

The Persecution and Martyrdom of Early Christians

“What was their crime? It was admitting to being Christian. They did not have proper trials.
They were tortured before being put to death.”

During the rise of Christianity, these early Christians suffered greatly. They faced persecutions by the Roman Empire and some of those the persecuted are now considered martyrs. These men and women, even children, would not renounce their faith in God; therefore, they were tortured and sentenced to death by the state. If these people had renounced their faith while on trial on worshipped the idols, they would not have died so horrifically. However, their faith, the new Christian faith, was so strong that they determined it was better to die than live a lie.

In class we read an excerpt from Life of Constantine, written by the emperor’s historian Eusebius. Eusebius had also written an Ecclesiastical History, in this book he wrote about many of the early Christian martyrs. He described their sickening sentences. A website details twenty-two of the martyrs’ deaths that Eusebius described, stating that elderly, adults, and youth all faced these horrific persecutions. They state that they were “cast to wild animals,” “thrown into the sea,” “scourged and scraped by iron hooks,” dragged behind horses or camels through the streets, raped, beheaded, burned, put in the stocks, stoned, crucified, and so many more. The most horrific I read was the account of Sanctus, which is the following:

“He suffered many torments devised by men. When these men could do no more, they fastened hot plates of brass to the most tender parts of his body. He withstood all the suffering, but his body was one continued wound, mangled and shrivelled [sic], that had entirely lost the form of man to the external eye. Again, he passed through the tortures. These included the strokes of the scourge, the draggings [sic] and lacerations from the beasts other tortures demanded by the audience, and the iron chair upon which his body was roasted. Other tortures followed until he died.”

These martyrs of the Christian faith endured the unimaginable to people today. Throughout the tortured these men and women did not renounce their faith or worship the other gods so that they may live another day. In fact some “kept a cheerful and joyful countenance throughout.” At the end of this essay, the author states that men and women today “take granted the religion freedom which they have.” No matter a person’s faith, he or she must remember that the world did not always have the religious freedoms as she does today. He or she must not ignore the fact that men and women die on a daily basis because of their religious beliefs. It may not happen as regularity as the persecutions of the Roman Christians, but there are those still discriminated against because of their religious (or non-religious) beliefs.

Information from http://www.innvista.com/culture/religion/earlmart.htm
Picture (Martyrdom of the 10,000) from Creative Commons : http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Martyrdom.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martyrdom.jpg&usg=__9Or610FcYA84uecodbDfNeh8lt0=&h=1061&w=850&sz=115&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=_mz7cDW09NLFaM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmartyrdom%26as_rights%3D(cc_publicdomain%257Ccc_attribute%257Ccc_sharealike%257Ccc_nonderived).-(cc_noncommercial)%26hl%3Den