Remembering Jenne-Jeno

After reading chapter seven in Robert Strayer’s Ways of the World, I wanted to know more about the infamous Jenne-Jeno in West Africa. The city was located along the Niger River, south of Timbuktu in present day Mali. Occupation of Jenne-Jeno began around 250 BCE, and started declining near 1200 CE. Interestingly enough, archaeologists have not found evidence of any kind of state structure in the city. They believe that Jenne-Jeno and other West African cities along the Niger River had a very different mode of operation.

There is evidence of settlements based on various occupations such as weaving, iron smithing, leather working, and potting. Such settlements were scattered around urban centers, organizing themselves into economic castes of a sort. There was even a caste formed of griots, people who recited oral traditions of the society in order to preserve its ways. Excavated remains of Jenne-Jeno show definite evidence of trade with other river valley cities. No sources of iron ore can be found in the Niger floodplain, but with such a booming use for metal to make tools and jewelry, it is certain that the ancient people must have had it imported. There is also evidence of imported stone grinders, salt, beads, copper, and in later years, gold. The floodplain was well-suited for farming, giving the people of Jenne-Jeno an ample supply of rice and grains to trade with. In addition they bartered with smoked meats, fish, and fish oils. In fact, Jenne-Jeno is considered to be one of the biggest trading hubs of ancient West Africa. The city became a commercial trading center, linked by the Niger River to Timbuktu.

Roderick and Susan McIntosh are American archaeologists who have been excavating Jenne-Jeno since the 1970s. Unfortunately, they have found that the site has continued to fall victim to pillagers who sell the ancient artifacts for millions of dollars on the black market. I came across a web page maintained by a woman who is trekking around the world and has written about her encounters with ancient sites such as Jenne-Jeno. She was led by a local guide, and her story of the trip is very interesting. An ancient 12 foot high, brick wall runs 1.3 miles city, where pieces of ground-up pottery scatter the site. The McIntosh’s claim that “next to Egypt, Mali has the richest deposit of artifacts in Africa,” which makes realizing that the majority of them may be lost to pillagers even more devastating.

Scholars speculate that Jenne-Jeno was abandoned due to drying of the region and Islamic influence. Perhaps Jenne-Jeno, which means “ancient Jenne” in languages of the region, was deserted for a new location that provided better trading with Muslims. PBS has compiled documentaries on oral traditions they have heard from local people regarding the decline of ancient civilizations and the influence of the Muslim world. Regardless of the reason, it is sad that the ancient ways of life of the people of Jenne-Jeno were lost due to a reckless black market. One can only wonder what more could be learned about the city if the numerous stolen artifacts were recovered.

Sources:
http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500
Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

Sub-Saharan Africa: The Batwa and Bantu

"The Batwa are a pygmy people who were the oldest recorded inhabitants of the Great Lakes region of Central Africa."

Our textbook states that the Bantu people dominated the Batwa (Pygmy) people. However, I found an essay by Dr. Kairn Kieman, which argued that the Batwa culture played a greater role in Sub-Saharan Africa history than previously believed. Therefore, the Batwa people helped shape the Sub-Saharan African culture of the Bantu people nearly to the extent that the Bantu affected them.

The textbook “Ways of the World” by Robert W. Strayer described the Batwa people as inferior. Yet Strayer believed they had some influence on the Bantu. The book said that when the Bantu spread and took over the Batwa lands, the Batwa began to speak Bantu languages. In addition, the book mentioned the metallurgy and technology of the Bantu that allowed them to gain control over the Batwa hunter-gather society (Strayer 190). Yet at the same time the Batwa led the Bantus to integrate Batwa culture. The book stated, “…the Bantu famers regarded their Batwa neighbors as first-comers to the region and therefore closest to the ancestral and territorial spirits that determined the fertility of the land and people. Thus…chiefs appropriated the Batwa title of “owners of the land” for themselves, claimed Batwa ancestry…” (191). So, the Bantu, in a way, took over Batwa land and, eventually culture, for themselves and claimed to be the Batwa, “the original land owners” of the region. The Bantu effectively decreased the importance of the Batwa and placed themselves as the “true” owners.

However, an excerpt from a book I found, The Pygmies Were Our Compass: Bantu and Batwa in the History of West Central Africa, Early Times to C. 1900 C.E., by Dr. Kieman stated that there is little evidence that the Batwa people were so inferior to the Bantu. Dr. Kieman said that the idea that the Batwa people used New Stone Age tools (horticulture with little use of metals which some historians claimed was the reason the Bantu dominated them so easily) lacked evidence. Also, she wrote that there is no evidence that the Batwa became a completely hunter-gather society, but instead they most likely mixed hunting and gathering with agriculture. One part of the essay struck me as very interesting:

The notion that Batwa societies have lived in a state of perpetual servitude to their agriculturalist neighbors is belied by the large body of Bantu oral traditions about the Batwa. Across the rainforest, and even south into the savanna regions of eastern and southern Africa, Bantu traditions relate that Batwa communities were not only the "first- comers’ on the land," but also the first teachers and guides to Bantu societies, instructing them how to use fire, find fertile lands, grow food, and produce iron.

I read about the Batwa in our reading and thought about them as simply another culture dominated by the Bantu. However, now I realized that the Batwa culture influenced the Bantu culture to a great extent. This essay has revealed to me that the Batwa were able for a time to remain “a separate identity” (Strayer 191), at least for a while. Yet the Batwa most likely influenced the Bantu more than the Strayer textbook described. The Bantu definitely integrated the Batwa into their society by declaring themselves, the true “owners of the land”, but, in a way, the Batwa integrated the Bantu in their society as well by teaching them important tasks. They taught the Bantu people aspects of survival and abilities that were important in making a more advanced society. These Batwa traditions taught to the Bantu would carry on Batwa culture for many years to come, however unimportant the Batwa may seem today to some historians.

I also found an additional website that discusses the origin of the Batwa and the aspects of their culture still alive today.

Textbook source:

Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

Their language has an idiosyncrasy of its own. It seems to consist mainly of clicking sounds.

The epic journey of an African Bushman, in the movie The Gods Must Be Crazy, starts when a Coke bottle falls from an airplane in the sky and lands in front of him. He has never seen a glass bottle before, and he takes it back to his tribe where they admire it. As they find more and more uses for the bottle, they begin to view it as a necessity. New emotions like jealousy, hate, and anger surface as conflict between members of the tribe as each tries to use the bottle for his own purpose. One member of the tribe decides that enough is enough, and that the bottle must be returned to the gods who sent it. His fictional journey illustrates the differences between the modern fast paced world and the more relaxed hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

The Bushmen who live in the South African Kalahari Desert are members of an ethnic group known as the Khoisan, and are the remnants of two tribes of people. The San were an ancient tribe of hunter-gatherers and the Khoi Khoi who were a tribe of pastoralists. Both tribes are known for their unusual languages that involve using a series of clicks for some consonants. This language family is confined primarily to South Africa, although there are some speakers of the language in Tanzania. Jared Diamond, in his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, suggested that the Khoisan may originally have been more widespread across Sub-Saharan Africa. Archeologists believe they have lived in this area for over 20,000 years, and they may be one of the oldest peoples in the world. Discoveries of San rock art in the Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa depict their food sources (the eland antelope), their beliefs in the supernatural world, and their history painted on sandstone.

The history of these people is a microcosm of the broader picture of world history, where each geographic area has seen a succession of people displacing, conquering, or killing previous inhabitants. The name San literally means “those without cattle.” They were the original inhabitants of southern Africa who mixed with the Khoi Khoi from the north. The Khoi Khoi had been in contact with the Bantu people from whom they acquired cattle. The Khoi Khoi and the San eventually mixed and became the dominant ethnic group in southern Africa. The Bantu migration from western Africa into and across southern Africa between 3,000 BCE and 500 CE brought agriculture and iron technology that would serve to marginalize the Khoisan people. Later, the Europeans, with their sophisticated technology and aggressive colonial governments, dominated the region from the 17th century onwards. The Khoisan peoples have been able to survive through many generations and into the present day because they live in remote areas (such as the Kalahari desert) that are unsuitable for farming. This hunting and gathering society can give us a small idea of what life was like before humans became sedentary.

Sub Saharan Afica-AIDS

Sub Saharan Africa consists of the countries that lie south of the Sahara desert. This region holds less than 10% of the world’s population; however this area is home to over 60% of the people living with AIDS in the world. To put these stats into numbers its 1.9 million people living with HIV currently. Also more than 75% of the deaths caused by AIDS happened in this part of the world. According to the CIA world fact book, the top 22 countries in population infected with AIDS are located in Africa, with top 16 being located in Sub Saharan Africa. There are quite a few reasons that these countries have been a huge contributing factor. First of all heterosexual unprotected sex is the main cause, followed by needle sharing during drug use, then female sex workers that participate in unprotected sex with multiple partners, and finally homosexual sex between men. In some countries one reason is more prevalent than others, for example the sex trade in Mali is a huge business, and needle drug use is a huge problem in Kenya.

The United States has attempted help this epidemic. The USAID gives medical supplies, financial help, distributes condoms, passes out clean needles, and most importantly education for the countries in Sub Saharan Africa. Education is the key to stopping the spread of HIV, if the Sub Saharan people do not know what is causing this horrible disease they will never know how to prevent it.

Sources: http://www.unaids.org/en/CountryResponses/Regions/SubSaharanAfrica.asp
http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/countries/rcsa/index.html

Vlad Tepes - "Dracula"

It seems that vampires has become an infatuation around the globe, but all of these stories originated from Bram Stoker’s Dracula. Therefore, I have chosen to write about Vlad Tepes, whom many believe to be the man being Stoker’s book. One of my favorite books is The Historian, by Elizabeth Kostova; yes, it is a fiction story, but it does hold some historical value. I found this great website that spoke about Vlad Tepes and the man behind Dracula. http://www.donlinke.com/drakula/vlad.htm

Vlad Tepes went by many names, including the famous Vlad Dracula and Vlad the Impaler. In 1410 a secret order was formed, the Order of the Dragon, to defend the Roman Empire from the Ottoman Turks. Vlad Tepes’ father joined this order and he then became known as Vlad Dracul, since “drac” in Romanian means dragon. Then Vlad Tepes became the “son of the dragon” or better known as Vlad Dracula.

Now, when Vlad Tepes became ruler he caused much bloodshed, during the years 1456-1462. Not only did he cause this bloodshed, but also he did so in the most cruel and unimaginable ways. As previously mentioned, Vlad the Impaler was another name for the famous Vlad Tepes. Impalement was Vlad Tepes’ most common way of slaughtering people. The sharpened stake would normally be forced through one’s “bottom” and out through the mouth, however he did create many alternatives. On the website, one of the most appalling descriptions was the following: “Infants were sometimes impaled on the stake forced through their mother’s chests.” Not only did Vlad Tepes slaughter adults, but also innocent infants and children. It goes on further to state “thousands were often impaled at a single time,” so in other words, many mass murders. To quote the site:

“The list of tortures employed by this cruel prince reads like an inventory of
hell’s tools: nails in heads, cutting off of limbs, blinding, strangulation,
burning, cutting off noses and ears, mutilation of sexual organs (especially in
the case of women), scalping, skinning, exposure to the elements or to wild
animals, and burning alive.”

It is no wonder why an author may create a character like Dracula after reading about Vlad Tepes, however, it is not 100% sure that Bram Stoker did so. Although there are many similarities between the character Dracula and Vlad Tepes, there also many ways to counteract these similarities. Thus, the mystery remains on whether Vlad Tepes is Dracula….

Works cited: http://www.donlinke.com/drakula/vlad.htm

Image from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vlad_tepes.jpg

Magnificent Machu Picchu

The ruins of great civilizations scatter the globe, yet as we marvel in their beauty, we must realize that the stories behind many ancient works are unknown. To this day, scientists and scholars alike are uncertain of many aspects surrounding the famous Machu Picchu site in Peru. Perched between two sacred mountain tops, the remains of Machu Picchu are magnificent and grand. One can only be left to wonder what the city must have been like during its prime.

Machu Picchu directly translates as ‘Old Mountain’ and was built around 1450 CE by the Incan leader Pachakuteq. The city is believed to have been built as a sanctuary for elite members of the Inca civilization to escape the chaos of nearby Cuzco. In fact, a road enters the south of Machu Picchu directly from the main city. For the select few who entered the city, its infrastructure was amazing. Grand buildings were made from granite in the top of the mountains. Blocks were laid together so tight that scholars proclaim not even a knife blade will fit between them. Close up pictures of the blocks that compile the buildings can be found here.

Machu Picchu is separated into two distinct sectors. The agricultural sector forms a ring around the center, urban sector which was separated by walls and ditches that may have once been a moat. Uneven slopes required terraces to be used in order to make farming possible. However, scholars do not believe the agricultural sector would have been productive enough to entirely sustain the urban center. The inner sector is filled with a network of buildings, plazas, and platforms, but at the heart of the city, temples and palaces were constructed and connected by narrow passages of steep stairways. There are many other distinct features to the layout of Machu Picchu, and this site does a very thorough job of explaining them. Gold covered buildings still stand today at the core of the urban center where lavish ceremonies may have taken place.

Only able to sustain around 500 people, Machu Picchu was small compared to other Incan cities, reinforcing the theory that it was built only for the privileged. Although, based on archeological evidence, scholars consider the inhabitants of the city to be from various places within the Inca Empire. It remains unclear what brought such a variety of people together. Perhaps leaders from every corner of the empire retreated to Machu Picchu at some point in time.

It is doubtful that we will ever fully understand the purpose and history of Machu Picchu, but archeologists continue to excavate the site in hope of further discovery.

Sources:
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/ancient/machu-picchu.html http://www.machupicchu.perucultural.org.pe/ingles/index.htm

The fall of The Temple of Jerusalem

As I finished my book for our book review this week, and began to write my paper I felt it appropriate to blog about it as well.

The Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed almost 2,000 years ago, but still remains a cultural memory, and a site that is still powerful and contested. The temple was built and rebuilt, and worshiped by many. The Temple of Jerusalem has become the world most's powerful symbol of the search for a lost ideal.

The First Temple:

The first Temple was built in 10th century BC by King Solomon, actually purchased by King David. There are no physical remains of the first temple today, only descriptive, construction details were found in detail in 2 Chronicles 3. If built today the average cost would be $450 million dollars. This first temple was stripped of its wealth by later kings of Judah as they tried to buy off foreign enemies and it was finally destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylonia, in the eleventh year of King Zedekiah, last king of Judah, 586 BC.

The Second Temple:


The Second Temple's construction was begun under the law of Cyrus, in 538 BC. The temple began to be known as the Temple of Zerubbabel. The Temple underwent the mayhem of the Maccabean wars. During the wars the temple was damaged by Antiochus Epiphanes. King Herod took great pleasure in rebuilding the temple with great magnificence. After 46 years of re-building the temple was still not finished when it was againdestroyed by the Romans during the Jewish War in 70 AD and completely dismantled. All that now remains is the Western Wall which is a retaining wall of the platform on which the temple was built.

Sources:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14499a.htm
The Temple of Jerusalem by Simon Goldhill